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cos, tan, etc).
SMALL TO BIG SYSTEMS In the section called “Cache in depth” we described inclusive v exclusive caches. In general, L1 caches are usually inclusive — that is all data in the L1 cache also resides in the L2 cache. In a multiprocessor system, an inclusive L1 cache means that only the L2 cache need snoop memory traffic to maintain coherency, since any changes in L2 will be guaranteed to be reflected by L1. IMPLEMENTING ABSTRACTION It's only necessary to vaguely understand that this structure is a description of a virtual I/O device. We can see the user of this API (the device driver author) is expected to provide a number of functions that will be called under various conditions during system operation (when probing for new hardware, when hardware is removed,etc.).
GLOBAL OFFSET TABLES The GOT is private to each process, and the process must have write permissions to it. Conversely the library code is shared and the process should have only read and execute permissions on the code; it would be a serious security breach if the process could modify code.VIRTUAL ADDRESSES
Virtual address translation refers to the process of finding out which physical page maps to which virtual page. When translating a virtual-address to a physical-address we only deal with the page number .The essence of the procedure is to take the page number of the given address and look it up in the page-table to find a pointer to a physical address, to which the offset from the virtual CHAPTER 9. DYNAMIC LINKING Even though the dynamic linker does a lot of the work for shared libraries, the traditional linker still has a role to play in creating the executable.. The traditional linker needs to leave a pointer in the executable so that the dynamic linker knows what library will satisfy the dependencies at runtime. COMPUTER SCIENCE FROM THE BOTTOM UPINTRODUCTION2. BINARY AND NUMBER REPRESENTATIONCOMPILING4. THE OPERATING SYSTEM This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 TYPES AND NUMBER REPRESENTATION Above we can see the only divergence from the standard is that int is commonly a 32 bit quantity, which is twice the strict minimum 16 bit size that the C99 requires.. Pointers are really just an address (i.e. their value is an address and thus "points" somewhere else in memory) therefore a pointer needs to be sufficient in size to be able to address any memory in the system. HARDWARE SUPPORT FOR VIRTUAL MEMORY To allow for even finer grained sharing, each TLB entry on the Itanium is also tagged with a protection key.Each process has an additional number of protection key registers under operating-system control. When a series of pages is to be shared (e.g., code for a shared system library), each page is tagged with a unique key and the OS grants any processes allowed to access the pages that key. PRIVILEGES - BOTTOMUPCS.COM In the inner most ring are the most protected instructions; those that only the kernel should be allowed to call. For example, the HLT instruction to halt the processor should not be allowed to be run by a user application, since it would stop the entire computer from working. However, the kernel needs to be able to call this instruction when the computer is legitimately shut down. CHAPTER 3. COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE Those that load values from memory into registers and store values from registers to memory.. Those that operate on values stored in registers. For example adding, subtracting multiplying or dividing the values in two registers, performing bitwise operations (and, or, xor, etc) or performing other mathematical operations (square root, sin,cos, tan, etc).
SMALL TO BIG SYSTEMS In the section called “Cache in depth” we described inclusive v exclusive caches. In general, L1 caches are usually inclusive — that is all data in the L1 cache also resides in the L2 cache. In a multiprocessor system, an inclusive L1 cache means that only the L2 cache need snoop memory traffic to maintain coherency, since any changes in L2 will be guaranteed to be reflected by L1. IMPLEMENTING ABSTRACTION It's only necessary to vaguely understand that this structure is a description of a virtual I/O device. We can see the user of this API (the device driver author) is expected to provide a number of functions that will be called under various conditions during system operation (when probing for new hardware, when hardware is removed,etc.).
GLOBAL OFFSET TABLES The GOT is private to each process, and the process must have write permissions to it. Conversely the library code is shared and the process should have only read and execute permissions on the code; it would be a serious security breach if the process could modify code.VIRTUAL ADDRESSES
Virtual address translation refers to the process of finding out which physical page maps to which virtual page. When translating a virtual-address to a physical-address we only deal with the page number .The essence of the procedure is to take the page number of the given address and look it up in the page-table to find a pointer to a physical address, to which the offset from the virtual CHAPTER 9. DYNAMIC LINKING Even though the dynamic linker does a lot of the work for shared libraries, the traditional linker still has a role to play in creating the executable.. The traditional linker needs to leave a pointer in the executable so that the dynamic linker knows what library will satisfy the dependencies at runtime.INTRODUCTION
This book is only possible thanks to the development of Open Source technologies. Before Linux it was like taking a shop course with a car that had its bonnet welded shut; today we are in a position to open that bonnet, poke around with the insides and, better still, take thatengine and use it
SMALL TO BIG SYSTEMS In the section called “Cache in depth” we described inclusive v exclusive caches. In general, L1 caches are usually inclusive — that is all data in the L1 cache also resides in the L2 cache. In a multiprocessor system, an inclusive L1 cache means that only the L2 cache need snoop memory traffic to maintain coherency, since any changes in L2 will be guaranteed to be reflected by L1. TYPES AND NUMBER REPRESENTATION Above we can see the only divergence from the standard is that int is commonly a 32 bit quantity, which is twice the strict minimum 16 bit size that the C99 requires.. Pointers are really just an address (i.e. their value is an address and thus "points" somewhere else in memory) therefore a pointer needs to be sufficient in size to be able to address any memory in the system. MEMORY - BOTTOMUPCS.COM Direct mapped caches will allow a cache line to exist only in a singe entry in the cache. This is the simplest to implement in hardware, but as illustrated in Figure 3.4, “Cache Associativity” there is no potential to avoid aliasing because the two shaded addresses must share the same cache line.. Fully Associative caches will allow a cache line to exist in any entry of the cache. ELEMENTS OF A PROCESS One other very important part of a process is an area of memory called the stack.This can be considered part of the data section of a process, and is intimately involved in the execution of any program.SYSTEM CALLS
We start by writing a small C program which we can start to illustrate the mechanism behind system calls. The first thing to note is that there is a syscall argument provided by the system libraries for directly making system calls. This provides an easy way for programmers to directly make systems calls without having to know the exact assembly language routines for making the call on theirHARDWARE SUPPORT
When a virtual address is requested of the hardware — say via a load instruction requesting to get some data — the processor looks for the virtual-address to physical-address translation in its TLB. If it has a valid translation it can then combine this with the offset portion to go straight to the physical address and complete the load. CHAPTER 9. DYNAMIC LINKING Even though the dynamic linker does a lot of the work for shared libraries, the traditional linker still has a role to play in creating the executable.. The traditional linker needs to leave a pointer in the executable so that the dynamic linker knows what library will satisfy the dependencies at runtime. CONSEQUENCES OF VIRTUAL ADDRESSES, PAGES AND PAGE TABLES A different but related process is the memory map, or mmap (from the system call name). If instead of the page table pointing to physical memory or swap the page table points to a file, on disk, we say the file is mmaped. Normally, you need to open a file on disk to obtain a file descriptor, and then read and write it in a sequential form. CHAPTER 4. THE OPERATING SYSTEM As the operating system provides so many services to the computer, its performance is critical. Many parts of the operating system run extremely frequently, so even an overhead of just a few processor cycles can add up to a big decrease in overall system performance. COMPUTER SCIENCE FROM THE BOTTOM UPINTRODUCTION2. BINARY AND NUMBER REPRESENTATIONCOMPILING4. THE OPERATING SYSTEM This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 MEMORY - BOTTOMUPCS.COM Direct mapped caches will allow a cache line to exist only in a singe entry in the cache. This is the simplest to implement in hardware, but as illustrated in Figure 3.4, “Cache Associativity” there is no potential to avoid aliasing because the two shaded addresses must share the same cache line.. Fully Associative caches will allow a cache line to exist in any entry of the cache. TYPES AND NUMBER REPRESENTATION Above we can see the only divergence from the standard is that int is commonly a 32 bit quantity, which is twice the strict minimum 16 bit size that the C99 requires.. Pointers are really just an address (i.e. their value is an address and thus "points" somewhere else in memory) therefore a pointer needs to be sufficient in size to be able to address any memory in the system. PRIVILEGES - BOTTOMUPCS.COM In the inner most ring are the most protected instructions; those that only the kernel should be allowed to call. For example, the HLT instruction to halt the processor should not be allowed to be run by a user application, since it would stop the entire computer from working. However, the kernel needs to be able to call this instruction when the computer is legitimately shut down. CHAPTER 3. COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE Those that load values from memory into registers and store values from registers to memory.. Those that operate on values stored in registers. For example adding, subtracting multiplying or dividing the values in two registers, performing bitwise operations (and, or, xor, etc) or performing other mathematical operations (square root, sin,cos, tan, etc).
HARDWARE SUPPORT FOR VIRTUAL MEMORY To allow for even finer grained sharing, each TLB entry on the Itanium is also tagged with a protection key.Each process has an additional number of protection key registers under operating-system control. When a series of pages is to be shared (e.g., code for a shared system library), each page is tagged with a unique key and the OS grants any processes allowed to access the pages that key. IMPLEMENTING ABSTRACTION It's only necessary to vaguely understand that this structure is a description of a virtual I/O device. We can see the user of this API (the device driver author) is expected to provide a number of functions that will be called under various conditions during system operation (when probing for new hardware, when hardware is removed,etc.).
VIRTUAL ADDRESSES
Virtual address translation refers to the process of finding out which physical page maps to which virtual page. When translating a virtual-address to a physical-address we only deal with the page number .The essence of the procedure is to take the page number of the given address and look it up in the page-table to find a pointer to a physical address, to which the offset from the virtual GLOBAL OFFSET TABLES The GOT is private to each process, and the process must have write permissions to it. Conversely the library code is shared and the process should have only read and execute permissions on the code; it would be a serious security breach if the process could modify code. CHAPTER 4. THE OPERATING SYSTEM As the operating system provides so many services to the computer, its performance is critical. Many parts of the operating system run extremely frequently, so even an overhead of just a few processor cycles can add up to a big decrease in overall system performance. COMPUTER SCIENCE FROM THE BOTTOM UPINTRODUCTION2. BINARY AND NUMBER REPRESENTATIONCOMPILING4. THE OPERATING SYSTEM This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 MEMORY - BOTTOMUPCS.COM Direct mapped caches will allow a cache line to exist only in a singe entry in the cache. This is the simplest to implement in hardware, but as illustrated in Figure 3.4, “Cache Associativity” there is no potential to avoid aliasing because the two shaded addresses must share the same cache line.. Fully Associative caches will allow a cache line to exist in any entry of the cache. TYPES AND NUMBER REPRESENTATION Above we can see the only divergence from the standard is that int is commonly a 32 bit quantity, which is twice the strict minimum 16 bit size that the C99 requires.. Pointers are really just an address (i.e. their value is an address and thus "points" somewhere else in memory) therefore a pointer needs to be sufficient in size to be able to address any memory in the system. PRIVILEGES - BOTTOMUPCS.COM In the inner most ring are the most protected instructions; those that only the kernel should be allowed to call. For example, the HLT instruction to halt the processor should not be allowed to be run by a user application, since it would stop the entire computer from working. However, the kernel needs to be able to call this instruction when the computer is legitimately shut down. CHAPTER 3. COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE Those that load values from memory into registers and store values from registers to memory.. Those that operate on values stored in registers. For example adding, subtracting multiplying or dividing the values in two registers, performing bitwise operations (and, or, xor, etc) or performing other mathematical operations (square root, sin,cos, tan, etc).
HARDWARE SUPPORT FOR VIRTUAL MEMORY To allow for even finer grained sharing, each TLB entry on the Itanium is also tagged with a protection key.Each process has an additional number of protection key registers under operating-system control. When a series of pages is to be shared (e.g., code for a shared system library), each page is tagged with a unique key and the OS grants any processes allowed to access the pages that key. IMPLEMENTING ABSTRACTION It's only necessary to vaguely understand that this structure is a description of a virtual I/O device. We can see the user of this API (the device driver author) is expected to provide a number of functions that will be called under various conditions during system operation (when probing for new hardware, when hardware is removed,etc.).
VIRTUAL ADDRESSES
Virtual address translation refers to the process of finding out which physical page maps to which virtual page. When translating a virtual-address to a physical-address we only deal with the page number .The essence of the procedure is to take the page number of the given address and look it up in the page-table to find a pointer to a physical address, to which the offset from the virtual GLOBAL OFFSET TABLES The GOT is private to each process, and the process must have write permissions to it. Conversely the library code is shared and the process should have only read and execute permissions on the code; it would be a serious security breach if the process could modify code. CHAPTER 4. THE OPERATING SYSTEM As the operating system provides so many services to the computer, its performance is critical. Many parts of the operating system run extremely frequently, so even an overhead of just a few processor cycles can add up to a big decrease in overall system performance.INTRODUCTION
This book is only possible thanks to the development of Open Source technologies. Before Linux it was like taking a shop course with a car that had its bonnet welded shut; today we are in a position to open that bonnet, poke around with the insides and, better still, take thatengine and use it
TYPES AND NUMBER REPRESENTATION Above we can see the only divergence from the standard is that int is commonly a 32 bit quantity, which is twice the strict minimum 16 bit size that the C99 requires.. Pointers are really just an address (i.e. their value is an address and thus "points" somewhere else in memory) therefore a pointer needs to be sufficient in size to be able to address any memory in the system. SMALL TO BIG SYSTEMS In the section called “Cache in depth” we described inclusive v exclusive caches. In general, L1 caches are usually inclusive — that is all data in the L1 cache also resides in the L2 cache. In a multiprocessor system, an inclusive L1 cache means that only the L2 cache need snoop memory traffic to maintain coherency, since any changes in L2 will be guaranteed to be reflected by L1. ELEMENTS OF A PROCESS One other very important part of a process is an area of memory called the stack.This can be considered part of the data section of a process, and is intimately involved in the execution of any program. PAGES + FRAMES = PAGE TABLES It is the job of the operating system is to keep track of which of virtual-page points to which physical frame. This information is kept in a page-table which, in its simplest form, could simply be a table where each row contains its associated frame — this is termed a linear page-table.If you were to use this simple system, with a 32 bit address-space and 4 KiB pages there would be 1048576 GLOBAL OFFSET TABLES The GOT is private to each process, and the process must have write permissions to it. Conversely the library code is shared and the process should have only read and execute permissions on the code; it would be a serious security breach if the process could modify code.SYSTEM CALLS
Each and every system call has a system call number which is known by both the userspace and the kernel. For example, both know that system call number 10 is open(), system call number 11 is read(), etc. The Application Binary Interface (ABI) is very similar to an API but rather than being for software is for hardware. The API will define which register the system call number should be put inFORK AND EXEC
In the kernel, fork is actually implemented by a clone system call. This clone interfaces effectively provides a level of abstraction in how the Linux kernel can create processes. clone allows you to explicitly specify which parts of the new process are copied into the new process, and which parts are shared between the two processes. This may seem a bit strange at first, but allows us to PERIPHERALS AND BUSES Peripherals are any of the many external devices that connect to your computer. Obviously, the processor must have some way of talking to the peripherals to make them useful. CHAPTER 9. DYNAMIC LINKING Even though the dynamic linker does a lot of the work for shared libraries, the traditional linker still has a role to play in creating the executable.. The traditional linker needs to leave a pointer in the executable so that the dynamic linker knows what library will satisfy the dependencies at runtime. COMPUTER SCIENCE FROM THE BOTTOM UPNext
------------------------- COMPUTER SCIENCE FROM THE BOTTOM UPIAN WIENAND
USA.
-------------------------Table of Contents
* Introduction
* Welcome
* Philosophy
* Why _from the bottom up_? * Enabling Technologies * 1. General Unix and Advanced C * _Everything is a file!_ * Implementing abstraction * Implementing abstraction with C* Libraries
* File Descriptors
* The Shell
* 2. Binary and Number Representation * Binary — the basis of computing* Binary Theory
* Hexadecimal
* Practical Implications * Types and Number Representation* C Standards
* Types
* Number Representation * 3. Computer Architecture* The CPU
* Branching
* Cycles
* Fetch, Decode, Execute, Store* CISC v RISC
* Memory
* Memory Hierarchy
* Cache in depth
* Peripherals and buses * Peripheral Bus concepts* DMA
* Other Buses
* Small to big systems * Symmetric Multi-Processing* Clusters
* Non-Uniform Memory Access * Memory ordering, locking and atomic operations * 4. The Operating System * The role of the operating system * Abstraction of hardware* Multitasking
* Standardised Interfaces* Security
* Performance
* Operating System Organisation* The Kernel
* Userspace
* System Calls
* Overview
* Analysing a system call* Privileges
* Hardware
* Other ways of communicating with the kernel* File Systems
* 5. The Process
* What is a process? * Elements of a process* Process ID
* Memory
* File Descriptors
* Registers
* Kernel State
* Process Hierarchy
* Fork and Exec
* Fork
* Exec
* How Linux actually handles fork and exec* The init process
* Context Switching
* Scheduling
* Preemptive v co-operative scheduling* Realtime
* Nice value
* A brief look at the Linux Scheduler* The Shell
* Signals
* Example
* 6. Virtual Memory
* What Virtual Memory _isn't_ * What virtual memory _is_* 64 bit computing
* Using the address space* Pages
* Physical Memory
* Pages + Frames = Page Tables* Virtual Addresses
* Page
* Offset
* Virtual Address Translation * Consequences of virtual addresses, pages and page tables * Individual address spaces* Protection
* Swap
* Sharing memory
* Disk Cache
* Hardware Support
* Physical v Virtual Mode* The TLB
* TLB Management
* Linux Specifics
* Address Space Layout * Three Level Page Table * Hardware support for virtual memory* x86-64
* Itanium
* 7. The Toolchain
* Compiled v Interpreted Programs* Compiled Programs
* Interpreted programs * Building an executable* Compiling
* The process of compiling* Syntax
* Assembly Generation* Optimisation
* Assembler
* Linker
* Symbols
* The linking process * A practical example* Compiling
* Assembly
* Linking
* The Executable
* 8. Behind the process * Review of executable files * Representing executable files * Three Standard Sections* Binary Format
* Binary Format History* ELF
* ELF File Header
* Symbols and Relocations * Sections and Segments* ELF Executables
* Libraries
* Static Libraries
* Shared Libraries
* Extending ELF concepts* Debugging
* Custom sections
* Linker Scripts
* ABIs
* Byte Order
* Calling Conventions * Starting a process * Kernel communication to programs * Starting the program * 9. Dynamic Linking* Code Sharing
* Dynamic Library Details * Including libraries in an executable * The Dynamic Linker* Relocations
* Position Independence * Global Offset Tables * The Global Offset Table* Libraries
* The Procedure Lookup Table * Working with libraries and the linker* Library versions
* Finding symbols
* Glossary
List of Figures
* 1.1. Abstraction
* 1.2. Default Unix Files* 1.3. Abstraction
* 1.4. A pipe in action* 2.1. Masking
* 2.2. Types
* 3.1. The CPU
* 3.2. Inside the CPU * 3.3. Reorder buffer example * 3.4. Cache Associativity* 3.5. Cache tags
* 3.6. Overview of handling an interrupt * 3.7. Overview of a UHCI controller operation* 3.8. A Hypercube
* 3.9. Acquire and Release semantics * 4.1. The Operating System * 4.2. The Operating System* 4.3. Rings
* 4.4. x86 Segmentation Addressing* 4.5. x86 segments
* 5.1. The Elements of a Process* 5.2. The Stack
* 5.3. Process memory layout* 5.4. Threads
* 5.5. The O(1) scheduler * 6.1. Illustration of canonical addresses * 6.2. Virtual memory pages * 6.3. Virtual Address Translation* 6.4. Segmentation
* 6.5. Linux address space layout * 6.6. Linux Three Level Page Table * 6.7. Illustration Itanium regions and protection keys * 6.8. Illustration of Itanium TLB translation * 6.9. Illustration of a hierarchical page-table * 6.10. Itanium short-format VHPT implementation * 6.11. Itanium PTE entry formats* 7.1. Alignment
* 7.2. Alignment
* 8.1. ELF Overview
* 9.1. Memory access via the GOT* 9.2. sonames
List of Tables
* 1.1. Standard Files Provided by Unix * 1.2. Standard Shell Redirection Facilities* 2.1. Binary
* 2.2. 203 in base 10 * 2.3. 203 in base 2 * 2.4. Base 2 and 10 factors related to bytes * 2.5. Convert 203 to binary * 2.6. Truth table for _not_ * 2.7. Truth table for _and_ * 2.8. Truth table for _or_ * 2.9. Truth table for _xor_ * 2.10. Boolean operations in C * 2.11. Hexadecimal, Binary and Decimal * 2.12. Convert 203 to hexadecimal * 2.13. Standard Integer Types and Sizes * 2.14. Standard Scalar Types and Sizes * 2.15. One's Complement Addition * 2.16. Two's Complement Addition * 2.17. IEEE Floating Point * 2.18. Scientific Notation for 1.98765x10^6 * 2.19. Significands in binary * 2.20. Example of normalising 0.375 * 3.1. Memory Hierarchy * 9.1. Relocation Example * 9.2. ELF symbol fieldsList of Examples
* 1.1. Abstraction with function pointers * 1.2. Abstraction in include/linux/virtio.h * 1.3. Example of major and minor numbers* 2.1. Using masks
* 2.2. Using flags
* 2.3. Example of warnings when types are not matched * 2.4. Floats versus Doubles * 2.5. Program to find first set bit * 2.6. Examining Floats * 2.7. Analysis of 8.45 * 3.1. Memory Ordering * 4.1. getpid() example * 4.2. PowerPC system call example * 4.3. x86 system call example * 5.1. Stack pointer example * 5.2. PSTREE example * 5.3. Zombie example process * 5.4. Signals Example * 7.1. Struct padding example * 7.2. Stack alignment example * 7.3. Page alignment manipulations* 7.4. Hello World
* 7.5. Function Example * 7.6. Compilation Example * 7.7. Assembly Example * 7.8. Readelf Example * 7.9. Linking Example * 7.10. Executable Example * 8.1. The ELF Header * 8.2. The ELF Header, as shown by readelf * 8.3. Inspecting the ELF magic number * 8.4. Investigating the entry point * 8.5. The Program Header* 8.6. Sections
* 8.7. Sections
* 8.8. Sections readelf output * 8.9. Sections and Segments * 8.10. Segments of an executable file * 8.11. Creating and using a static library * 8.12. Example of creating a core dump and using it with gdb * 8.13. Example of stripping debugging information into separatefiles using objcopy
* 8.14. Example of using readelf and eu-readelf to examine acoredump.
* 8.15. Example of modinfo output * 8.16. Putting module info into sections * 8.17. Module symbols in .modinfo sections * 8.18. The default linker script * 8.19. Disassembley of program startup * 8.20. Constructors and Destructors * 9.1. Specifying Dynamic Libraries * 9.2. Looking at dynamic libraries * 9.3. Checking the program interpreter * 9.4. Relocation as defined by ELF * 9.5. Specifying Dynamic Libraries * 9.6. Using the GOT * 9.7. Relocations against the GOT * 9.8. Hello World PLT example * 9.9. Hello world main() * 9.10. Hello world sections * 9.11. Hello world PLT * 9.12. Hello world GOT * 9.13. Dynamic Segment * 9.14. Code in the dynamic linker for setting up special values (from libc sysdeps/ia64/dl-machine.h) * 9.15. Symbol definition from ELF * 9.16. Examples of symbol bindings * 9.17. Example of LD_PRELOAD * 9.18. Example of symbol versioning -------------------------Next
Introduction
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