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Electronics
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASICS INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the photo-diode into a voltage. The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage point at the inverting input and controls the amount of output. The output voltage is given as Vout = I s x Rƒ.Therefore, the output voltage is proportional to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode. NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS OP-AMP COMPARATOR AND THE OP-AMP COMPARATOR CIRCUIT The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage level, or some preset reference voltage, V REF and produces an output signal based on this voltage comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which is the largest of the two. KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Gustav Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is the second of his fundamental laws we can use for circuit analysis. His voltage law states that for a closed loop series path the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero.This is because acircuit loop is
ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER The most common and easily understood active filter is the Active Low Pass Filter. Its principle of operation and frequency response is exactly the same as those for the previously seen passive filter, the only difference this time is that it uses an op-amp for amplification and gain control. The simplest form of a low pass active filter is to DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER The Differential Amplifier circuit is a very useful op-amp circuit and by adding more resistors in parallel with the input resistors R1 and R3, the resultant circuit can be made to either “Add” or “Subtract” the voltages applied to their respective inputs. One of the most common ways of doing this is to connect a “Resistive Bridge COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER AND TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERSSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS PHASOR DIAGRAM AND PHASOR ALGEBRA USED IN AC CIRCUITS Basically a rotating vector, simply called a “ Phasor ” is a scaled line whose length represents an AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is “frozen” at some point in time. A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the maximum value of thevector
BASIC ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS AND REVISIONCAPACITORSDIODESRC NETWORKSTRANSFORMERSTRANSISTORSDC CIRCUITS Basic Electronics Tutorials and Revision is a free online Electronics Tutorials Resource for Beginners and Beyond on all aspects of BasicElectronics
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASICS INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the photo-diode into a voltage. The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage point at the inverting input and controls the amount of output. The output voltage is given as Vout = I s x Rƒ.Therefore, the output voltage is proportional to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode. NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS OP-AMP COMPARATOR AND THE OP-AMP COMPARATOR CIRCUIT The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage level, or some preset reference voltage, V REF and produces an output signal based on this voltage comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which is the largest of the two. KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Gustav Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is the second of his fundamental laws we can use for circuit analysis. His voltage law states that for a closed loop series path the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero.This is because acircuit loop is
ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER The most common and easily understood active filter is the Active Low Pass Filter. Its principle of operation and frequency response is exactly the same as those for the previously seen passive filter, the only difference this time is that it uses an op-amp for amplification and gain control. The simplest form of a low pass active filter is to DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER The Differential Amplifier circuit is a very useful op-amp circuit and by adding more resistors in parallel with the input resistors R1 and R3, the resultant circuit can be made to either “Add” or “Subtract” the voltages applied to their respective inputs. One of the most common ways of doing this is to connect a “Resistive Bridge COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER AND TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERSSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS PHASOR DIAGRAM AND PHASOR ALGEBRA USED IN AC CIRCUITS Basically a rotating vector, simply called a “ Phasor ” is a scaled line whose length represents an AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is “frozen” at some point in time. A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the maximum value of thevector
SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Instead of analysing each passive element separately, we can combine all three together into a series RLC circuit. The analysis of a series RLC circuit is the same as that for the dual series R L and R C circuits we looked at previously, except this time we need to take into account the magnitudes of both X L and X C to find the overall circuit reactance. . Series RLC circuits are classed as NPN TRANSISTOR TUTORIAL NPN Transistor. In the previous tutorial we saw that the standard Bipolar Transistor or BJT, comes in two basic forms. An NPN ( N egative- P ositive- N egative) type and a PNP (. ositive) type. The most commonly used transistor configuration is the NPN Transistor. We also learnt that the junctions of the bipolar transistor can be biasedin one
LOW PASS FILTER
Passive Low Pass Filter. A Low Pass Filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all unwanted high frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass only those signals wanted by the circuits designer. In other words they “filter-out” unwanted signals and an ideal filter will separate and pass sinusoidal input FULL WAVE RECTIFIER AND BRIDGE RECTIFIER THEORY The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance (R L) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load.When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D 1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.. When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point CHIGH PASS FILTER
The Bode Plot or Frequency Response Curve above for a passive high pass filter is the exact opposite to that of a low pass filter. Here the signal is attenuated or damped at low frequencies with the output increasing at +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the frequency reaches the cut-off point ( ƒc ) where again R = Xc.It has a response curve that extends down from infinity to the cut-off CURRENT TRANSFORMER BASICS AND THE CURRENT TRANSFORMER The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the current being measured in its primary.Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an AC COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER AND TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS An common emitter amplifier circuit has a load resistance, RL of 1.2kΩ and a supply voltage of 12v. Calculate the maximum Collector current ( Ic) flowing through the load resistor when the transistor is switched fully “ON” (saturation), assume Vce = 0. Also find the value of the Emitter resistor, RE if it has a voltage drop of 1vacross it.
SERIES RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC RESONANT CIRCUIT In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedance’s exist. This is because at resonance they are cancelled out. So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and therefore: Z = R. SUMMING AMPLIFIER IS AN OP-AMP VOLTAGE ADDER The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit indeed, enabling us to effectively “Add” or “Sum” (hence its name) together several individual input signals. If the inputs resistors, R 1, R 2, R 3 etc, are all equal a “unity gain inverting adder” will be made. However, if the input resistors are of different values a “scaling summing amplifier” is produced which will output a WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT AND THEORY OF OPERATION The Wheatstone Bridge diamond shaped circuit who’s concept was developed by Charles Wheatstone can be used to accurately measure unknown resistance values, or as a means of calibrating measuring instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a variable resistance and a simple mathematical formula.. Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to measure a BASIC ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS AND REVISIONCAPACITORSDIODESRC NETWORKSTRANSFORMERSTRANSISTORSDC CIRCUITS Basic Electronics Tutorials and Revision is a free online Electronics Tutorials Resource for Beginners and Beyond on all aspects of BasicElectronics
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER TUTORIAL The Common Collector Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) configuration where the input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output signal taken from the emitter terminal. Thus the collector terminal is common to both the input and output circuits. This type of configuration is called Common Collector, (CC) because the collector terminal is effectively SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSISSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the photo-diode into a voltage. The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage point at the inverting input and controls the amount of output. The output voltage is given as Vout = I s x Rƒ.Therefore, the output voltage is proportional to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode. PHASOR DIAGRAM AND PHASOR ALGEBRA USED IN AC CIRCUITS The phase voltages are all equal in magnitude but only differ in their phase angle. The three windings of the coils are connected together at points, a 1, b 1 and c 1 to produce a common neutral connection for the three individual phases. Then if the red phase is taken as the reference phase each individual phase voltage can be defined with respect to the common neutral as. 555 CIRCUITS USING THE 555 TIMER AS AN ASTABLE OSCILLATOR Where: t 1 is the output high duration, t 2 is the output low duration, T is the periodic time of the output waveform, ƒ is the frequency of the output waveform, and 0.693 = ln(2) When connected as an astable oscillator, capacitor C charges through R A and R B but discharges only through R B.Thus the duty cycle D is determined by the ratio of these two resistors. WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR TUTORIAL AND THEORY In the RC Oscillator tutorial we saw that a number of resistors and capacitors can be connected together with an inverting amplifier to produce an oscillating circuit.. One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which uses a RC network in place of the conventional LC tuned tank circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is called a Wien Bridge Oscillator. SALLEN AND KEY FILTER DESIGN FOR SECOND ORDER RC FILTERS The Sallen and Key Filter design is a second-order active filter topology which we can use as the basic building blocks for implementing higher order filter circuits, such as low-pass (LPF), high-pass (HPF) and band-pass (BPF) filter circuits.. As we have seen in this filters section, electronic filters, either passive or active, are used in circuits where a signals amplitude is only required RECTIFICATION OF A THREE PHASE SUPPLY USING DIODESSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS BASIC ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS AND REVISIONCAPACITORSDIODESRC NETWORKSTRANSFORMERSTRANSISTORSDC CIRCUITS Basic Electronics Tutorials and Revision is a free online Electronics Tutorials Resource for Beginners and Beyond on all aspects of BasicElectronics
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER TUTORIAL The Common Collector Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) configuration where the input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output signal taken from the emitter terminal. Thus the collector terminal is common to both the input and output circuits. This type of configuration is called Common Collector, (CC) because the collector terminal is effectively SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSISSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the photo-diode into a voltage. The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage point at the inverting input and controls the amount of output. The output voltage is given as Vout = I s x Rƒ.Therefore, the output voltage is proportional to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode. PHASOR DIAGRAM AND PHASOR ALGEBRA USED IN AC CIRCUITS The phase voltages are all equal in magnitude but only differ in their phase angle. The three windings of the coils are connected together at points, a 1, b 1 and c 1 to produce a common neutral connection for the three individual phases. Then if the red phase is taken as the reference phase each individual phase voltage can be defined with respect to the common neutral as. 555 CIRCUITS USING THE 555 TIMER AS AN ASTABLE OSCILLATOR Where: t 1 is the output high duration, t 2 is the output low duration, T is the periodic time of the output waveform, ƒ is the frequency of the output waveform, and 0.693 = ln(2) When connected as an astable oscillator, capacitor C charges through R A and R B but discharges only through R B.Thus the duty cycle D is determined by the ratio of these two resistors. WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR TUTORIAL AND THEORY In the RC Oscillator tutorial we saw that a number of resistors and capacitors can be connected together with an inverting amplifier to produce an oscillating circuit.. One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which uses a RC network in place of the conventional LC tuned tank circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is called a Wien Bridge Oscillator. SALLEN AND KEY FILTER DESIGN FOR SECOND ORDER RC FILTERS The Sallen and Key Filter design is a second-order active filter topology which we can use as the basic building blocks for implementing higher order filter circuits, such as low-pass (LPF), high-pass (HPF) and band-pass (BPF) filter circuits.. As we have seen in this filters section, electronic filters, either passive or active, are used in circuits where a signals amplitude is only required RECTIFICATION OF A THREE PHASE SUPPLY USING DIODESSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Instead of analysing each passive element separately, we can combine all three together into a series RLC circuit. The analysis of a series RLC circuit is the same as that for the dual series R L and R C circuits we looked at previously, except this time we need to take into account the magnitudes of both X L and X C to find the overall circuit reactance. . Series RLC circuits are classed as NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATION Voltage Follower (Unity Gain Buffer) If we made the feedback resistor, Rƒ equal to zero, (Rƒ = 0), and resistor R2 equal to infinity, (R2 = ∞), then the resulting circuit would have a fixed gain of “1” (unity) as all the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback).This configuration would produce a special type of the non-inverting amplifier circuit TRIAC TUTORIAL AND TRIAC SWITCHING CIRCUITS There is however, another type of semiconductor device called a “Triode AC Switch” or Triac for short which is also a member of the thyristor family that be used as a solid state power switching device but more importantly it is a “bidirectional” device. In other words, a Triac can be triggered into conduction by both positive and negative voltages applied to its Anode and with both HARMONICS AND HARMONIC FREQUENCY IN AC CIRCUITS Where: V max is the peak value in volts and ƒ is the waveforms frequency in Hertz (Hz). We can see that a sinusoidal waveform is an alternating voltage (or current), which varies as a sine function of angle, 2πƒ.The waveforms frequency, ƒ is determined by the number of cycles per second. In the United Kingdom this fundamental frequency is set at 50Hz while in the United States it is 60Hz. OPTOCOUPLER TUTORIAL AND OPTOCOUPLER APPLICATION Optocoupler Applications. Optocouplers and opto-isolators can be used on their own, or to switch a range of other larger electronic devices such as transistors and triacs providing the required electrical isolation between a lower voltage control signal, for example one from an Arduino or micro-controller, and a much higher voltage or mains current output signal. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER AND BRIDGE RECTIFIER THEORY The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance (R L) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load.When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D 1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.. When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point CLOW PASS FILTER
The Bode Plot shows the Frequency Response of the filter to be nearly flat for low frequencies and all of the input signal is passed directly to the output, resulting in a gain of nearly 1, called unity, until it reaches its Cut-off Frequency point ( ƒc).This is because the reactance of the capacitor is high at low frequencies and blocks any current flow through the capacitor. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND PHASORS IN POLAR OR RECTANGULAR FORM Complex Numbers can also have “zero” real or imaginary parts such as: Z = 6 + j0 or Z = 0 + j4.In this case the points are plotted directly onto the real or imaginary axis. Also, the angle of a complex number can be calculated using simple trigonometry to calculate the angles of right-angled triangles, or measured anti-clockwise around the Argand diagram starting from the positive real axis. TRANSFORMER BASICS AND TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLES Where: V P – is the Primary Voltage; V S – is the Secondary Voltage; N P – is the Number of Primary Windings; N S – is the Number of Secondary Windings; Φ (phi) – is the Flux Linkage; Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT AND THEORY OF OPERATION The Wheatstone Bridge diamond shaped circuit who’s concept was developed by Charles Wheatstone can be used to accurately measure unknown resistance values, or as a means of calibrating measuring instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a variable resistance and a simple mathematical formula.. Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to measure a BASIC ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS AND REVISIONCAPACITORSDIODESRC NETWORKSTRANSFORMERSTRANSISTORSDC CIRCUITS Basic Electronics Tutorials and Revision is a free online Electronics Tutorials Resource for Beginners and Beyond on all aspects of BasicElectronics
SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSISSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the photo-diode into a voltage. The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage point at the inverting input and controls the amount of output. The output voltage is given as Vout = I s x Rƒ.Therefore, the output voltage is proportional to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode. NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER TUTORIAL The Common Collector Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) configuration where the input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output signal taken from the emitter terminal. Thus the collector terminal is common to both the input and output circuits. This type of configuration is called Common Collector, (CC) because the collector terminal is effectively SALLEN AND KEY FILTER DESIGN FOR SECOND ORDER RC FILTERS The Sallen and Key Filter design is a second-order active filter topology which we can use as the basic building blocks for implementing higher order filter circuits, such as low-pass (LPF), high-pass (HPF) and band-pass (BPF) filter circuits.. As we have seen in this filters section, electronic filters, either passive or active, are used in circuits where a signals amplitude is only required WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR TUTORIAL AND THEORY In the RC Oscillator tutorial we saw that a number of resistors and capacitors can be connected together with an inverting amplifier to produce an oscillating circuit.. One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which uses a RC network in place of the conventional LC tuned tank circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is called a Wien Bridge Oscillator. SERIES RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC RESONANT CIRCUIT In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedance’s exist. This is because at resonance they are cancelled out. So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and therefore: Z = R. PHASOR DIAGRAM AND PHASOR ALGEBRA USED IN AC CIRCUITS Basically a rotating vector, simply called a “ Phasor ” is a scaled line whose length represents an AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is “frozen” at some point in time. A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the maximum value of thevector
RESISTOR COLOUR CODE AND RESISTOR TOLERANCES EXPLAINEDSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS BASIC ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS AND REVISIONCAPACITORSDIODESRC NETWORKSTRANSFORMERSTRANSISTORSDC CIRCUITS Basic Electronics Tutorials and Revision is a free online Electronics Tutorials Resource for Beginners and Beyond on all aspects of BasicElectronics
SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSISSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the photo-diode into a voltage. The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage point at the inverting input and controls the amount of output. The output voltage is given as Vout = I s x Rƒ.Therefore, the output voltage is proportional to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode. NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER TUTORIAL The Common Collector Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) configuration where the input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output signal taken from the emitter terminal. Thus the collector terminal is common to both the input and output circuits. This type of configuration is called Common Collector, (CC) because the collector terminal is effectively SALLEN AND KEY FILTER DESIGN FOR SECOND ORDER RC FILTERS The Sallen and Key Filter design is a second-order active filter topology which we can use as the basic building blocks for implementing higher order filter circuits, such as low-pass (LPF), high-pass (HPF) and band-pass (BPF) filter circuits.. As we have seen in this filters section, electronic filters, either passive or active, are used in circuits where a signals amplitude is only required WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR TUTORIAL AND THEORY In the RC Oscillator tutorial we saw that a number of resistors and capacitors can be connected together with an inverting amplifier to produce an oscillating circuit.. One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which uses a RC network in place of the conventional LC tuned tank circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is called a Wien Bridge Oscillator. SERIES RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC RESONANT CIRCUIT In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedance’s exist. This is because at resonance they are cancelled out. So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and therefore: Z = R. PHASOR DIAGRAM AND PHASOR ALGEBRA USED IN AC CIRCUITS Basically a rotating vector, simply called a “ Phasor ” is a scaled line whose length represents an AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is “frozen” at some point in time. A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the maximum value of thevector
RESISTOR COLOUR CODE AND RESISTOR TOLERANCES EXPLAINEDSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Instead of analysing each passive element separately, we can combine all three together into a series RLC circuit. The analysis of a series RLC circuit is the same as that for the dual series R L and R C circuits we looked at previously, except this time we need to take into account the magnitudes of both X L and X C to find the overall circuit reactance. . Series RLC circuits are classed as NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATION Voltage Follower (Unity Gain Buffer) If we made the feedback resistor, Rƒ equal to zero, (Rƒ = 0), and resistor R2 equal to infinity, (R2 = ∞), then the resulting circuit would have a fixed gain of “1” (unity) as all the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback).This configuration would produce a special type of the non-inverting amplifier circuit SUMMING AMPLIFIER IS AN OP-AMP VOLTAGE ADDER The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit indeed, enabling us to effectively “Add” or “Sum” (hence its name) together several individual input signals. If the inputs resistors, R 1, R 2, R 3 etc, are all equal a “unity gain inverting adder” will be made. However, if the input resistors are of different values a “scaling summing amplifier” is produced which will output a SERIES RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC RESONANT CIRCUIT In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedance’s exist. This is because at resonance they are cancelled out. So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and therefore: Z = R. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT AND THEORY OF OPERATION The Wheatstone Bridge diamond shaped circuit who’s concept was developed by Charles Wheatstone can be used to accurately measure unknown resistance values, or as a means of calibrating measuring instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a variable resistance and a simple mathematical formula.. Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to measure a OPTOCOUPLER TUTORIAL AND OPTOCOUPLER APPLICATION Optocoupler Applications. Optocouplers and opto-isolators can be used on their own, or to switch a range of other larger electronic devices such as transistors and triacs providing the required electrical isolation between a lower voltage control signal, for example one from an Arduino or micro-controller, and a much higher voltage or mains current output signal. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER AND BRIDGE RECTIFIER THEORY The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance (R L) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load.When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D 1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.. When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C OP-AMP COMPARATOR AND THE OP-AMP COMPARATOR CIRCUIT The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage level, or some preset reference voltage, V REF and produces an output signal based on this voltage comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which is the largest of the two. TRIAC TUTORIAL AND TRIAC SWITCHING CIRCUITS There is however, another type of semiconductor device called a “Triode AC Switch” or Triac for short which is also a member of the thyristor family that be used as a solid state power switching device but more importantly it is a “bidirectional” device. In other words, a Triac can be triggered into conduction by both positive and negative voltages applied to its Anode and with both TRANSFORMER BASICS AND TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLES Transformer Basics Example No1. A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer. This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every one secondary winding. BASIC ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS AND REVISIONCAPACITORSDIODESRC NETWORKSTRANSFORMERSTRANSISTORSDC CIRCUITS Basic Electronics Tutorials and Revision is a free online Electronics Tutorials Resource for Beginners and Beyond on all aspects of BasicElectronics
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASICS NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR TUTORIAL AND THEORY In the RC Oscillator tutorial we saw that a number of resistors and capacitors can be connected together with an inverting amplifier to produce an oscillating circuit.. One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which uses a RC network in place of the conventional LC tuned tank circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is called a Wien Bridge Oscillator. 555 CIRCUITS USING THE 555 TIMER AS AN ASTABLE OSCILLATOR Where: t 1 is the output high duration, t 2 is the output low duration, T is the periodic time of the output waveform, ƒ is the frequency of the output waveform, and 0.693 = ln(2) When connected as an astable oscillator, capacitor C charges through R A and R B but discharges only through R B.Thus the duty cycle D is determined by the ratio of these two resistors. SALLEN AND KEY FILTER DESIGN FOR SECOND ORDER RC FILTERS The Sallen and Key Filter design is a second-order active filter topology which we can use as the basic building blocks for implementing higher order filter circuits, such as low-pass (LPF), high-pass (HPF) and band-pass (BPF) filter circuits.. As we have seen in this filters section, electronic filters, either passive or active, are used in circuits where a signals amplitude is only required TRIAC TUTORIAL AND TRIAC SWITCHING CIRCUITSSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS VOLTAGE DIVIDER AND VOLTAGE DIVISION Voltage Dividers. Voltage Divider Circuits are useful in providing different voltage levels from a common supply voltage. This common supply can be a single supply either positive or negative, for example, +5V, +12V, -5V or -12V, etc. with respect to a common point or ground, usually 0V, or it could be across a dual supply, forexample ±5V, or
RECTIFICATION OF A THREE PHASE SUPPLY USING DIODESSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS TRANSFORMER BASICS AND TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLES Transformer Basics Example No1. A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer. This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every one secondary winding. BASIC ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS AND REVISIONCAPACITORSDIODESRC NETWORKSTRANSFORMERSTRANSISTORSDC CIRCUITS Basic Electronics Tutorials and Revision is a free online Electronics Tutorials Resource for Beginners and Beyond on all aspects of BasicElectronics
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASICS NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR TUTORIAL AND THEORY In the RC Oscillator tutorial we saw that a number of resistors and capacitors can be connected together with an inverting amplifier to produce an oscillating circuit.. One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which uses a RC network in place of the conventional LC tuned tank circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is called a Wien Bridge Oscillator. 555 CIRCUITS USING THE 555 TIMER AS AN ASTABLE OSCILLATOR Where: t 1 is the output high duration, t 2 is the output low duration, T is the periodic time of the output waveform, ƒ is the frequency of the output waveform, and 0.693 = ln(2) When connected as an astable oscillator, capacitor C charges through R A and R B but discharges only through R B.Thus the duty cycle D is determined by the ratio of these two resistors. SALLEN AND KEY FILTER DESIGN FOR SECOND ORDER RC FILTERS The Sallen and Key Filter design is a second-order active filter topology which we can use as the basic building blocks for implementing higher order filter circuits, such as low-pass (LPF), high-pass (HPF) and band-pass (BPF) filter circuits.. As we have seen in this filters section, electronic filters, either passive or active, are used in circuits where a signals amplitude is only required TRIAC TUTORIAL AND TRIAC SWITCHING CIRCUITSSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS VOLTAGE DIVIDER AND VOLTAGE DIVISION Voltage Dividers. Voltage Divider Circuits are useful in providing different voltage levels from a common supply voltage. This common supply can be a single supply either positive or negative, for example, +5V, +12V, -5V or -12V, etc. with respect to a common point or ground, usually 0V, or it could be across a dual supply, forexample ±5V, or
RECTIFICATION OF A THREE PHASE SUPPLY USING DIODESSEE MORE ON ELECTRONICS-TUTORIALS.WS TRANSFORMER BASICS AND TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLES Transformer Basics Example No1. A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer. This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every one secondary winding. SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Series RLC Circuit Example No1. A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12Ω, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitor of 100uF are connected in series across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the total circuit impedance, the circuits current, power factor and draw the voltage phasor diagram. Inductive Reactance, XL. CapacitiveReactance, XC.
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER TUTORIAL The Common Collector Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) configuration where the input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output signal taken from the emitter terminal. Thus the collector terminal is common to both the input and output circuits. This type of configuration is called Common Collector, (CC) because the collector terminal is effectively INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the photo-diode into a voltage. The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage point at the inverting input and controls the amount of output. The output voltage is given as Vout = I s x Rƒ.Therefore, the output voltage is proportional to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode. NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATION Voltage Follower (Unity Gain Buffer) If we made the feedback resistor, Rƒ equal to zero, (Rƒ = 0), and resistor R2 equal to infinity, (R2 = ∞), then the resulting circuit would have a fixed gain of “1” (unity) as all the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback).This configuration would produce a special type of the non-inverting amplifier circuit INTRODUCTION TO THE AMPLIFIER AN AMPLIFIER TUTORIAL Note that for the Power Gain you can also divide the power obtained at the output with the power obtained at the input. Also when calculating the gain of an amplifier, the subscripts v, i and p are used to denote the type of signal gain being used.. The power gain (Ap) or power level of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels, (dB).The Bel (B) is a logarithmic unit (base 10) of OHMS LAW TUTORIAL AND POWER IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS Electrical energy is the product of power multiplied by the length of time it was consumed. So if we know how much power, in Watts is being consumed and the time, in seconds for which it is used, we can find the total energy used in watt-seconds. In other words, Energy = powerx time and Power
PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT AND RLC PARALLEL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Parallel RLC Circuit Analysis. The Parallel RLC Circuit is the exact opposite to the series circuit we looked at in the previous tutorial although some of the previous concepts and equations still apply. However, the analysis of a parallel RLC circuits can be a little more mathematically difficult than for DEMORGAN'S THEOREM AND LAWS DeMorgan´s Theorem and Laws can be used to to find the equivalency of the NAND and NOR gates. As we have seen previously, Boolean Algebra uses a set of laws and rules to define the operation of a digital logic circuit with “0’s” and “1’s” being used to represent a digital input or output condition. Boolean Algebra uses these zeros COMPLEX NUMBERS AND PHASORS IN POLAR OR RECTANGULAR FORM Complex Numbers can also have “zero” real or imaginary parts such as: Z = 6 + j0 or Z = 0 + j4.In this case the points are plotted directly onto the real or imaginary axis. Also, the angle of a complex number can be calculated using simple trigonometry to calculate the angles of right-angled triangles, or measured anti-clockwise around the Argand diagram starting from the positive real axis. KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Gustav Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is the second of his fundamental laws we can use for circuit analysis. His voltage law states that for a closed loop series path the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero.This is because acircuit loop is
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SWITCHING THEORY
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UNIVERSAL LOGIC GATES Individual logic gates can be connected together to form a variety of different switching functions and combinational logic circuits. As we have seen throught this Digital Logic tutorial section, the three most basic logic gates are the: AND, OR and NOT gates, and given this set...
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DEMORGAN’S THEOREM As we have seen previously, Boolean Algebra uses a set of laws and rules to define the operation of a digital logic circuit with "0's" and "1's" being used to represent a digital input or output condition. Boolean Algebra uses these zeros and ones to create truth tables andmathe...
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Continuing on from our first look at the operation of the 555 timer, this second tutorial about the 555 Timer looks at some practical uses and circuits we can build when using the 555 as an astable multivibrator. We recall from the our previous tutorial about the 555timer that t...
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