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THE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
LINUX BASICS
Linux Basics. Linux Basics. With many UNIX systems that are around, the user is unaware that the operating system is a UNIX system. Many companies have point-of-sales systems hooked up to a UNIX host . For example, the users at the cash register may never see what is being run. Therefore, there is really no need to go into details about theWHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces of MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
TERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physicalTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
LINUX BASICS
Linux Basics. Linux Basics. With many UNIX systems that are around, the user is unaware that the operating system is a UNIX system. Many companies have point-of-sales systems hooked up to a UNIX host . For example, the users at the cash register may never see what is being run. Therefore, there is really no need to go into details about theWHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces of MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
TERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physical THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isSERIAL PORTS
Serial communication parameters must be agreed upon by both ends. These parameters are often referred to in triples, such as 8-1-N (read as eight-one-none). In this instance, there are eight data bits, 1 stop bit , and no parity is used. This is the default for Linuxsystems.
THE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
LINUX BASICS
Linux Basics. Linux Basics. With many UNIX systems that are around, the user is unaware that the operating system is a UNIX system. Many companies have point-of-sales systems hooked up to a UNIX host . For example, the users at the cash register may never see what is being run. Therefore, there is really no need to go into details about the VI BASICS – THE LINUX TUTORIAL Automatically indent each line. Shift sets of lines left or right. Check for pairs of {}, () and (great for programmers) Automatically wrap around at the end of a line. Cut and paste between documents. I am not going to mention every single vi command. Instead, MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
GUIDED TOUR
Guided Tour. Guided Tour. Unless you are on familiar ground, you usually need a map to get around any large area. To get from one place to another, the best map is a road map (or street map). If you are staying in one general area and are looking for places of interest, you need a tourist map. Because we are staying within the context ofLinux
PROCESS BASICS
Process Basics. Processes. One basic concept of an operating system is the process. If we think of the program as the file stored on the hard disk or floppy and the process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program and a process. Although these two terms are often interchanged or even misused in FILES AND DIRECTORIES Physically (that is, how they exist on the disk), directories are just files in a certain format. The directory structure is imposed on them by the program you use, such as ls. The directories have information that points to where the real files are. In comparison, you might consider a phone book. CRON – THE LINUX TUTORIAL cron is a commonly confusing and misconfigured aspect of the operating system.Technically, cron is just the clock daemon (/usr/sbin/cron or perhaps /usr/sbin/crond) that executes commands at specific times.However, a handful of configuration files and programs go into making up the cron package.PCI DEVICES
PCI Devices. PCI. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), as its name implies is a standard that describes how to connect the peripheral components of a system together in a structured and controlled way. The standard describes the way that the system components are electrically connected and the way that they should behave.THE SWAP CACHE
The swap cache is a list of page table entries, one per physical page in the system. This is a page table entry for a swapped out page and describes which swap file the page is being held in together with its location in the swap file. If a swap cache entry is non-zero, it represents a page which is being held in a swap file that has not beenWHAT LINUX DOES
On any operating system, a core set of tasks is performed.On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. In fact, I do cover all of these, and many others, in a fair bit of detail later on. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces ofPROCESS BASICS
One basic concept of an operating system is the process.If we think of the program as the file stored on the hard disk or floppy and the process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program and a process. VI BASICS – THE LINUX TUTORIAL The uses and benefits of any editor like vi are almost religious. Often, the reasons people choose one editor over another are purely a matter of personal taste. THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES Table – Process States in sched.h In my list of states, there was no mention of a process actually being on the processor (TASK_RUNNING). Processes that are running in kernel mode or in user mode are both in the TASK_RUNNING state. Although there is no 1:1 match-up, I hope you’ll see what each state means as we go through the followingdescription.
MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
TERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physicalWHAT LINUX DOES
On any operating system, a core set of tasks is performed.On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. In fact, I do cover all of these, and many others, in a fair bit of detail later on. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces ofPROCESS BASICS
One basic concept of an operating system is the process.If we think of the program as the file stored on the hard disk or floppy and the process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program and a process. VI BASICS – THE LINUX TUTORIAL The uses and benefits of any editor like vi are almost religious. Often, the reasons people choose one editor over another are purely a matter of personal taste. THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES Table – Process States in sched.h In my list of states, there was no mention of a process actually being on the processor (TASK_RUNNING). Processes that are running in kernel mode or in user mode are both in the TASK_RUNNING state. Although there is no 1:1 match-up, I hope you’ll see what each state means as we go through the followingdescription.
MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
TERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physicalTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
PROCESS BASICS
One basic concept of an operating system is the process.If we think of the program as the file stored on the hard disk or floppy and the process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program and a process. VI BASICS – THE LINUX TUTORIAL The uses and benefits of any editor like vi are almost religious. Often, the reasons people choose one editor over another are purely a matter of personal taste. FILES AND FILE SYSTEMS Any time you access a Linux system, whether locally, across a network, or through any other means, both files and file systems are involved.Every program that you run starts out as a file. Most of the time you are also reading or writing a file. AUTOMOUNT – THE LINUX TUTORIAL Here we mount the remote filesystems under /amd and the users see them under /usr/jmohr/homes.So, if my home directory on junior was /usr/jmohr/homes/jimmo every time I log into junior, amd kicks in and mounts the /home directory from jmohr.. Don’t think of automount as your only means of mounting NFS filesystem just because of it’s advantages. If you are constantly accessing certain FILES AND DIRECTORIES Another key aspect of any operating system is the concept of a file. A file is nothing more than a related set of bytes on disk or other media. These bytes are labeled with a name, which is then used as a means of referring to that set of bytes.PCI DEVICES
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), as its name implies is a standard that describes how to connect the peripheral components of a system together in a structured and controlled way. VIRTUAL MEMORY BASICS One interesting aspect about modern operating systems is the fact that they can run programs that require more memory than the systemactually has.
THE SWAP CACHE
When swapping pages out to the swap files, Linux avoids writing pages if it does not have to. There are times when a page is both in a swap file and in physical memory.MEMORY MANAGEMENT
The memory management subsystem is one of the most important parts of the operating system. Since the early days of computing, there has been a need for more memory than exists physically in a system.THE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
WHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces of MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isTERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physicalTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
WHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces of MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isTERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physical INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS Introduction to Operating Systems. Introduction to Operating Systems. In my book “Linux User’s Reference” and in previous incarnations of the Linux Tutorial, this chapter was first. At the time, I felt that knowing how pieces worked together was a good place to start. That was in the mid-1990’s and today, most people don’t need to MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
FILES AND FILE SYSTEMS Any time you access a Linux system, whether locally, across a network, or through any other means, both files and file systems are involved.Every program that you run starts out as a file. Most of the time you are also reading or writing a file.GUIDED TOUR
Guided Tour. Guided Tour. Unless you are on familiar ground, you usually need a map to get around any large area. To get from one place to another, the best map is a road map (or street map). If you are staying in one general area and are looking for places of interest, you need a tourist map. Because we are staying within the context ofLinux
PROCESS BASICS
Process Basics. Processes. One basic concept of an operating system is the process. If we think of the program as the file stored on the hard disk or floppy and the process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program and a process. Although these two terms are often interchanged or even misused in FILES AND DIRECTORIES Physically (that is, how they exist on the disk), directories are just files in a certain format. The directory structure is imposed on them by the program you use, such as ls. The directories have information that points to where the real files are. In comparison, you might consider a phone book. CPU BASICS – THE LINUX TUTORIAL The CPU, or rather microprocessor, is the heart of any computer system.The microprocessor calculates, performs logical operations and manages data flows by reading instructions from memory and VIRTUAL MEMORY BASICS To solve this problem, Linux uses something called “virtual memory”. It’s virtual because it can use more than you actually have. In fact, with virtual memory you can use the whole 2 32 bytes. Basically, what this means is that you can run more programs at once without the need for buying more memory. When a program starts, Linuxdoes not
KERNEL DATA STRUCTURES Data structures contain data and pointers, addresses of other data structures, or the addresses of routines. Taken all together, the data structures used by the Linux kernel can look very confusing. Every data structure has a purpose and although some are used by several kernel subsystems, they are more simple than they appear at firstsight.
POLLING AND INTERRUPTS Each time the device is given a command, for example “move the read head to sector 42 of the floppy disk” the device driver has a choice as to how it finds out that the command has completed. The device driver s can either poll the device or they can use interrupts.. Polling the device usually means reading its status register every so often until the device’s status changes to indicateTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
WHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces of MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isTERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physicalTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
WHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces of MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isTERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physical INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS Introduction to Operating Systems. Introduction to Operating Systems. In my book “Linux User’s Reference” and in previous incarnations of the Linux Tutorial, this chapter was first. At the time, I felt that knowing how pieces worked together was a good place to start. That was in the mid-1990’s and today, most people don’t need to MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
FILES AND FILE SYSTEMS Any time you access a Linux system, whether locally, across a network, or through any other means, both files and file systems are involved.Every program that you run starts out as a file. Most of the time you are also reading or writing a file.GUIDED TOUR
Guided Tour. Guided Tour. Unless you are on familiar ground, you usually need a map to get around any large area. To get from one place to another, the best map is a road map (or street map). If you are staying in one general area and are looking for places of interest, you need a tourist map. Because we are staying within the context ofLinux
PROCESS BASICS
Process Basics. Processes. One basic concept of an operating system is the process. If we think of the program as the file stored on the hard disk or floppy and the process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program and a process. Although these two terms are often interchanged or even misused in FILES AND DIRECTORIES Physically (that is, how they exist on the disk), directories are just files in a certain format. The directory structure is imposed on them by the program you use, such as ls. The directories have information that points to where the real files are. In comparison, you might consider a phone book. CPU BASICS – THE LINUX TUTORIAL The CPU, or rather microprocessor, is the heart of any computer system.The microprocessor calculates, performs logical operations and manages data flows by reading instructions from memory and VIRTUAL MEMORY BASICS To solve this problem, Linux uses something called “virtual memory”. It’s virtual because it can use more than you actually have. In fact, with virtual memory you can use the whole 2 32 bytes. Basically, what this means is that you can run more programs at once without the need for buying more memory. When a program starts, Linuxdoes not
KERNEL DATA STRUCTURES Data structures contain data and pointers, addresses of other data structures, or the addresses of routines. Taken all together, the data structures used by the Linux kernel can look very confusing. Every data structure has a purpose and although some are used by several kernel subsystems, they are more simple than they appear at firstsight.
POLLING AND INTERRUPTS Each time the device is given a command, for example “move the read head to sector 42 of the floppy disk” the device driver has a choice as to how it finds out that the command has completed. The device driver s can either poll the device or they can use interrupts.. Polling the device usually means reading its status register every so often until the device’s status changes to indicateTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
WHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces of MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isTERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physicalTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
For various reason I’ve moved to WordPress. The primary reason is that the old CMS was full of bugs and I was simply flooded with spamand emails
WHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book. MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces of MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isTERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physical INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS Introduction to Operating Systems. Introduction to Operating Systems. In my book “Linux User’s Reference” and in previous incarnations of the Linux Tutorial, this chapter was first. At the time, I felt that knowing how pieces worked together was a good place to start. That was in the mid-1990’s and today, most people don’t need to MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
FILES AND FILE SYSTEMS Any time you access a Linux system, whether locally, across a network, or through any other means, both files and file systems are involved.Every program that you run starts out as a file. Most of the time you are also reading or writing a file.GUIDED TOUR
Guided Tour. Guided Tour. Unless you are on familiar ground, you usually need a map to get around any large area. To get from one place to another, the best map is a road map (or street map). If you are staying in one general area and are looking for places of interest, you need a tourist map. Because we are staying within the context ofLinux
PROCESS BASICS
Process Basics. Processes. One basic concept of an operating system is the process. If we think of the program as the file stored on the hard disk or floppy and the process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program and a process. Although these two terms are often interchanged or even misused in FILES AND DIRECTORIES Physically (that is, how they exist on the disk), directories are just files in a certain format. The directory structure is imposed on them by the program you use, such as ls. The directories have information that points to where the real files are. In comparison, you might consider a phone book. CPU BASICS – THE LINUX TUTORIAL The CPU, or rather microprocessor, is the heart of any computer system.The microprocessor calculates, performs logical operations and manages data flows by reading instructions from memory and VIRTUAL MEMORY BASICS To solve this problem, Linux uses something called “virtual memory”. It’s virtual because it can use more than you actually have. In fact, with virtual memory you can use the whole 2 32 bytes. Basically, what this means is that you can run more programs at once without the need for buying more memory. When a program starts, Linuxdoes not
KERNEL DATA STRUCTURES Data structures contain data and pointers, addresses of other data structures, or the addresses of routines. Taken all together, the data structures used by the Linux kernel can look very confusing. Every data structure has a purpose and although some are used by several kernel subsystems, they are more simple than they appear at firstsight.
POLLING AND INTERRUPTS Each time the device is given a command, for example “move the read head to sector 42 of the floppy disk” the device driver has a choice as to how it finds out that the command has completed. The device driver s can either poll the device or they can use interrupts.. Polling the device usually means reading its status register every so often until the device’s status changes to indicateTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
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INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS Introduction to Operating Systems. Introduction to Operating Systems. In my book “Linux User’s Reference” and in previous incarnations of the Linux Tutorial, this chapter was first. At the time, I felt that knowing how pieces worked together was a good place to start. That was in the mid-1990’s and today, most people don’t need to MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces ofWHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book.TERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physical THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isTHE LINUX TUTORIAL
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INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS Introduction to Operating Systems. Introduction to Operating Systems. In my book “Linux User’s Reference” and in previous incarnations of the Linux Tutorial, this chapter was first. At the time, I felt that knowing how pieces worked together was a good place to start. That was in the mid-1990’s and today, most people don’t need to MODULES – THE LINUX TUTORIAL This chapter describes how the Linux kernel can dynamically load functions, for example filesystems, only when they are needed. Linux is a monolithic kernel; that is, it is one, single, large program where all the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines.The alternative is to have a micro-kernel structure where the functional pieces ofWHAT LINUX DOES
What Linux Does. What Linux Does. On any operating system , a core set of tasks is performed. On multi-user or server systems such as Linux, these tasks include adding and configuring printers, adding and administering users, and adding new hardware to the system. Each of these tasks could take up an entire chapter in this book.TERMINAL SETTINGS
Whenever you work with an application, what you see is governed by a couple of mechanisms.If you have a serial terminal, the flow of data is controlled by the serial line characteristics, including the baud rate, the number of data bits, parity, and so on.One aspect that is often forgotten or even unknown to many users is the terminal characteristics, which are used to control the physical THE LIFE CYCLE OF PROCESSES The Life Cycle of Processes. From the time a process is created with a fork () until it has completed its job and disappears from the process table , it goes through many different states. The state a process is in changes many times during its “life.”. These changes can occur, for example, when the process makes a system call , it isLINUX BASICS
Linux Basics. Linux Basics. With many UNIX systems that are around, the user is unaware that the operating system is a UNIX system. Many companies have point-of-sales systems hooked up to a UNIX host . For example, the users at the cash register may never see what is being run. Therefore, there is really no need to go into details about the INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS Introduction to Operating Systems. Introduction to Operating Systems. In my book “Linux User’s Reference” and in previous incarnations of the Linux Tutorial, this chapter was first. At the time, I felt that knowing how pieces worked together was a good place to start. That was in the mid-1990’s and today, most people don’t need toHARDWARE BASICS
Hardware Basics. Hardware Basics. An operating system has to work closely with the hardware system that acts as its foundations. The operating system needs certain services that can only be provided by the hardware. In order to fully understand the Linux operating system, you need to understand the basics of the underlying hardware.PROCESS BASICS
Process Basics. Processes. One basic concept of an operating system is the process. If we think of the program as the file stored on the hard disk or floppy and the process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program and a process. Although these two terms are often interchanged or even misused in WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM What Is an Operating System. In simple terms, an operating system is a manager. It manages all the available resources on a computer. These resources can be the hard disk, a printer, or the monitor screen. Even memory is a resource that needs to be managed. Within an operating system are the management functions that determine who gets to read SHELLS AND UTILITIES For most Windows users, “the shell “” is an almost entirely new concept. Many might familar with a command-line or “dos box”, but this is often just limited to inputting a command based on troubleshooting article they read.WINDOWS9X AND LINUX
If you have a Windows 9x system, you need to be careful, especially if the system was pre-installed. Many of these systems are installed using the newer FAT32, which allows you to create larger filesystems.However, with older distributions (and therefore older kernels) you will not be able to use lilo to boot your Windows 9x system. Instead, you will need to configure loadlin to book Linux MAJOR AND MINOR NUMBERS Because b is after the sd, we know that this is on the second drive. Subtracting 16 from the minor, we get 6, which matches the partition number. Because it is between 4 and 8, we know that this is on an extended partition.This is the second partition on the first extendedpartition.
VIRTUAL MEMORY BASICS To solve this problem, Linux uses something called “virtual memory”. It’s virtual because it can use more than you actually have. In fact, with virtual memory you can use the whole 2 32 bytes. Basically, what this means is that you can run more programs at once without the need for buying more memory. When a program starts, Linuxdoes not
POLLING AND INTERRUPTS Each time the device is given a command, for example “move the read head to sector 42 of the floppy disk” the device driver has a choice as to how it finds out that the command has completed. The device driver s can either poll the device or they can use interrupts.. Polling the device usually means reading its status register every so often until the device’s status changes to indicateSkip to content
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